This interactive will present the mathematical consideration of exponentially
enriching a piece of DNA using PCR. Typically, a PCR protocol will repeat
approximately 30 cycles of denaturation, annealing, and elongation. 30 cycles of
PCR produce around 1 billion copies of the amplified region.

Biology 2e is designed to cover the scope and sequence requirements of a typical two-semester biology course for science majors. The text provides comprehensive coverage of foundational research and core biology concepts through an evolutionary lens. Biology includes rich features that engage students in scientific inquiry, highlight careers in the biological sciences, and offer everyday applications. The book also includes various types of practice and homework questions that help students understand—and apply—key concepts. The 2nd edition has been revised to incorporate clearer, more current, and more dynamic explanations, while maintaining the same organization as the first edition. Art and illustrations have been substantially improved, and the textbook features additional assessments and related resources.

By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:

Explain the process of DNA replication in prokaryotes
Discuss the role of different enzymes and proteins in supporting this process

This article contains information on how DNA is repaired to prevent mutated damage from interrupting DNA processes.

PCR, or polymerase chain reaction, is a powerful lab technique used to generate billions of copies of a specific stretch of DNA. This video animation illustrates the process of PCR.

This interactive will present the components and steps needed for a successful
PCR reaction.

This interactive will present the rules for designing precise nucleotide sequences
called PCR primers. Designing primers for a PCR reaction is an important step
because the way they bind to the template DNA dictates much of the success of
the PCR reaction.

This tutorial reviews complex numbers, notation associated with complex numbers, and the basic operations involving complex numbers. Topics examined are conjugates and moduli, polar form, exponential form, arithmetic of complex numbers, and roots of complex numbers. Class notes, definitions, and examples with detailed solutions are included. The complete set of notes can be downloaded in PDF format.

Polymerase Chain Reaction - or PCR - is known as one of the most ubiquitous and powerful techniques in life science laboratories. PCR is a highly sensitive and selective method to produce many copies of a particular piece of DNA. This pathway details applications of PCR, its mechanism and primer design, and demonstrates how the method is used in the lab.